A to Z Guide on Human Settlements Issues

A

Access

Access to land and legal security of tenure must be advocated as birthright for all individuals and communities. They are strategic prerequisites for the provision of adequate shelter for all and for the development of sustainable human settlements affecting both urban and rural areas. It is also one way of breaking the vicious cycle of poverty. Every government must show a commitment to promoting the adequate supply of land in the context of sustainable land-use policies.

Accreditation of Demolition Crews

The accreditation of demolition crews, e.g. wearing name or identification tags will reduce the incidence of violence and unlawful action by those involved in demolition or eviction. The current practice encourage abuses as the offending individuals cannot be easily identified.

Acid Rain

Acid rain with its corrosive properties affects both the natural and artificial environment. Its long-term effects are devastating as excessive acidification of land and ground water affects the food chain and kills the natural ecosystem. Many urban centres are facing the problem of airborne pollution, particularly sulphur, which results primarily from industrial and vehicle emissions. The reduction of fossil fuel use and strict controls in emission from industrial and vehicles can reverse high acid rain levels. Lobby governments to monitor acid rain levels, set and enforce safe emission standards, reduce vehicle use and compel the use of catalytic converters for all vehicles.

Adaptable Housing

Housing which looks "normal" but which has been adapted to include features that can be adjusted, added or removed to suit the occupants. This type of housing will assist people with disabilities and also the elderly. However the flexibility of such housing is a bonus for both disabled and non-disabled persons as it allows the dweller to fully utilise the space of the house.

Advisory Groups

Advisory groups enable effective utilisation of skills, knowledge and experience at a relatively low cost to the community. Promote the development of national advisory groups consisting of academics, professionals, business persons, scientists, governmental agencies and non-governmental organisations and members of the public to assist with the formulation of urban policies, environmental standards and regulations.

Agriculture

Agricultural pesticides and artificial fertilisers are one of the major pollutants of the natural water supply both in rural and urban areas. With the increasing number of golf courses in urban areas, the levels of pesticide and fertiliser contamination of rivers and ground water has now become an additional problem. Organise campaigns which advocate minimal, integrated or non-pesticide and artificial fertiliser use in agriculture, food production and rural and urban pest weed control.

Aid

Citizens from donor countries should lobby for their governments to reform development assistance so that the money goes directly to the real needs, to development and human concerns,and to regenerating the resource base. Increase the overall level of development assistance and ensure that funding for peace-building, humanitarian emergencies, refugees, and transitional economies is provided from new and additional resources, not from development assistance. Citizens from recipient countries should monitor the spending of such aid by their governments.

AIDS

Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome is a relatively new viral syndrome which affects the body's immune system, rendering it incapable of coping with minor infections. It is estimated that millions of people are carrying the virus. Transmitted through exchange of body fluids it has become a major threat both in urban and rural centres. The dissemination of correct information about the spread of AIDS and its prevention whilst promoting the establishment of healthcare facilities for those infected should be encouraged. Co-operation between grassroots organisations, non-governmental and governmental agencies to produce information and preventive action programmes and support systems for victims can effectively reduce the spread of this disease.

Architecture

Architectural design plays an important part in the process of construction and development. Promote links and working programmes between architects and their professional associations, NGOs, planners, developers and the consumers. Informational workshops and joint programmes will enable all partners to exchange ideas, experience and expertise. It will also breakdown barriers and encourage long-term working partnerships.

Arts

The arts have contributed to human happiness and health in cities and rural areas by providing relaxation and stimulation. Besides its pleasurable aspects, the arts can be a very powerful tool to promote messages on urban and rural management.

Authority

Work with local authorities in developing long-term strategies and programmes that are aimed at making urban and rural areas more people friendly. Develop short-term projects that can facilitate co-operation between the consumer and the service provided.

B

Bicycle

Encourage the use of bicycles as an alternative form of transportation and means of reducing pollution levels. Organise campaigns that target the increase of bicycle paths along roads and the introduction of new road safety regulations which protect bicycle riders and provide bicyclists legal status for road use.

Bio-degradable Packaging

Promote the use of proper bio-degradable materials in manufacturing process and discourage the use non-biodegradable substances, like plastics. The use of plastics for the packaging of consumer goods in particular represent a huge problem. This can be overcome if consumers inform manufacturers of their unwillingness to purchasing such packaged products. Lobby manufacturers to use alternative packaging materials which are really bio-degradable or recyclable and not just cheap substitutes or gimmicks.

Biological Diversity

There is an urgent need to conserve biological diversity due to rapid destruction of natural habitats, pollution, over-harvesting, the promotion monocultures and inappropriate foreign plants and animals. Campaign for the protection of natural habitats in cities and rural areas and rehabilitate damaged ecosystems. Also encourage the practice of traditional methods of agriculture, agroforestry, forestry and wildlife management and sustainable and equitable uses of biotechnology.

Building Access Standards

Access standards are a good way of making buildings more user-friendly for the elderly and disabled. Such standards should include the diverse needs of persons with mobility, speech, hearing, visual and/or intellectual challenges. Standards cover design specifications, space allocations and measurements, signage user friendly equipment and technology.

Breastfeeding

The promotion of artificial milk products by the multinational companies coupled with artificial and structural barriers created for women who wish to breastfeed, has significantly prevented this natural practice and increased unnecessary cost. Campaign for the introduction of breastfeeding designated areas in all building, shopping and leisure centres. Besides making these areas more user friendly it also alleviates the inconveniences which women who breastfeed usually have to put up with when feeding.

Car

Lobby government and metropolitan municipalities to introduce restrictions for the use of private car in city centres and areas which are densely populated and congested. A comprehensive system which reduces traffic of single occupancy vehicles particularly at peak periods can be introduced successfully through the simultaneous introduction of effective public transport system as in the Republic of Singapore.

Capacity Building

Encourage the funding and formulation of programmes that will enhance the skills and income earning capacities of those in the informal sector in rural and urban areas. These policies and programmes should include training, credit assistance and market support to household enterprise, small cottage industries and informal housing industry.

Childcare

In the climate of the current patriarchal society, with more women entering the workforce and the diminishing possibilities of intermediate secondary family assistance the need for childcare support facilities is essential. Lobby government to promote financial and tax incentives for development of childcare facilities and encourage public sector and private companies to provide in-house childcare facilities and /or subsidies for childcare.

Child Labour

Child labour in many developing countries is on the increase despite the fact that many of the same countries are signatories to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Lobby local and national government to address issues of child labour and to protect them from physical and sexual abuse, and workplace exploitation. Organise campaigns to highlight the problems of child labour, the actual short, medium, long-term diseconomies of scale of using child labour and the need for the national governments to become signatories of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Clinical Waste

Clinical waste comprises waste from hospitals and other health facilities that is potentially contaminated with human disease or otherwise hazardous. Wrongly disposed clinical waste can cause serious contamination. Proper disposal of such waste should be done through incineration.

Community Action Planning (CAP)

CAP consists of a structured series of workshops organised for community members. These workshops can be run and organised by local government, NGOs and even community organisations to identify the socio-economic and physical infrastructure concerns of the community and to develop strategies to tackle these issues.

Community Contract System

This system is aimed at enabling the community to be responsible for and involved in the construction of their basic amenities in their own community. The government or local authority can give out contracts for building such amenities to the community rather than an outside contractor.

Community Eco-Management

Communities can be effective participants in the environmental management of their own communities. The combined resources and co-operation of individual households and inter-household communities can play a significant role in urban environmental management. Particularly in action orientated programmes and research and data gathering, households and communities can act as partners with the government in building an improved environment while empowering the community, even when government assistance is minimal.

Conservation

With rapid expansion of most urban centres and rural areas, the impact on the natural environment has been very harsh and to some extents devastating. The importance of conserving greenbelts and animal habitats to make developed areas more liveable has become an issue in planning future developments in both urban and rural areas. A balanced approach increases the sustainability of the land, water systems and the biological diversity of flora, fauna, insect and animal life.

Consumer Groups

Consumer groups can increase awareness of rights and responsibilities for the consumer. Such groups can also effectively monitor the commercial activities of the private and public sector to protect the consumer/citizen. Enhance research and advocacy capabilities of consumer groups to ensure that the consumer voice is effectively heard and represented in urban and rural policy making structures and processes.

Criminalisation of Squatting

In many countries squatting has been criminalised. Sentences for this "crime" vary from fines to imprisonment. The criminalisation of squatting is justified by the authorities as being a method of discouraging potential squatters but however is usually used to evict long-term squatters without negotiation or compensation. Governments should be lobbied to decriminalise squatting.

D

Decentralisation

Decentralisation is an effective way of facilitating greater participation by the citizens. This can be done by simplifying administrative units and allocating larger proportions of resources to states, local authorities, community centres. It enables faster responses to problems and increases localised control and accountability. Decentralisation also involves movement away from urban centres.

Decision Making

Our communities and countries should be democratic and government decision making should be based on transparency and participation. People have the right to participate in decision-making at all levels which affect their lives.

Department for Housing and Urban Development

The responsibility of housing and urban development often falls into the ambit of a multitude of government agencies/departments. Encourage the government to establish a special department for hhousing and urban development and to train the staff to undertake overall responsibility for the country's policy, programmes, monitoring and evaluation.

Disaster

Disaster mitigation and pre-disaster planning should be carried out on a regular basis and involve governmental agencies, NGOs and CBOs. Preparations and provisions should be made for Emergency Housing and Reconstruction in cases of war. Cooperation between governmental, non-governmental and citizen based organisations have proved to be very successful, as in Lebanon.

Disabled

Disabled persons are often marginalised both by physical structures or human attitudes. The contributions of disabled persons are essential in the development of any inclusive and holistic urban environment. Conduct disabled peoples forums on how to improve disabled access in transportation, housing, offices, public amenities and awareness programmes to promote sensitivity in planning and implementation of all development projects.

Discrimination

Discrimination, whether institutionalised or non-legal exists in every city. It creates disharmony in society and can lead to violence and the disintegration of communities. Discrimination can be based on different grounds including that of race, religion, gender, physical challenges and sexual preferences. Often based on ignorance, discrimination requires a position of power for perpetration.

Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a problem which often causes displacement of the individual who is being physically or psychologically harmed in the matrimonial home. This problem is on the rise due to increased financial and social stress, and the lack of gender sensitivity and legal protection for the victims. The vast majority of victims are women and children who due to fear for their own safety, become part of the homeless community.

Drainage

Drainage is an important part of urban infrastructure. The lack of planning and the inadequate provision of drainage which often results in floods and other health hazards. A coordinated programme to plan, review, improve and maintain drainage systems should be conducted on a regular basis and in consultation with the user groups.

Drugs

Although drugs are illegal in nearly all countries, they are available in most urban and rural areas. The use of such substances varies in each socio-economic class. Drug distribution is usually connected with other forms of vice and negative societal problems such as gangsterism, underground societies and networks. Public awareness campaigns on the effects of and problems related to drug use, and the provision of rehabilitation centres should be promoted in tandem with legal monitoring and control.

E

Earning Capacity

The earning capacity of women and young people is usually depressed because of lack of access to education, training and skill development. Campaign for the formulation of training and skill development programmes and vocational education that will enhance skills and increase the earning capacities of women and young people in the informal sector in rural and urban areas.

Eco-labelling

Organise public-awareness programmes that promote the introduction of environmental labelling for all products. Such labelling will inform the consumer of the health and environmental impact of products and the packaging used to contain it.

Ecosystems

Ecosystems consist of interdependent communities of species, including complex mixes of diversity between and within species, and their physical environment. The extent of an ecosystem is imprecise. They include major natural systems such as grasslands, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands and tropical forests as well as agricultural ecosystems. The process of urbanisation and rural development can have a devastating effect on ecosystems if there is no proper planning and regulation to protect them. Organise campaigns to get the authorities to safeguard existing ecosystems and to introduce regulation and protective measures that developers must comply with in areas where development has already begun.

Electronic Network

Establish an electronic network of urban actors in order to use new technology to disseminate information. A bulletin board system or electronic conferencing to facilitate exchange of information and discussions on urban issues and concerns. This is a cheap and effective way of communicating.

Encouraged Migration

In many of the economically developing nations, governments through their economic or political planning and policies encouraged migration of population from rural areas into urban areas. This migration was directly or indirectly encouraged to provide labour for the rapidly expanding industrial and service centres located in urban areas. Due to the lack of affordable housing in many urban centres many migrants are forced into squatting.

Environmental Audits

Work with the local residents and members of the community to conduct environmental audits by utilising members of the community and experts from the local authorities or environmental organisations and departments. This type of programme will increase the awareness of the local inhabitants and also build good working relationships, and encourage authorities to be more open.

Environmental Impact Assessment

An Environmental Impact Assessment is the result of an assessment of a particular environment. It is usually carried out scientifically according to a set of standard procedures by describing and/or measuring , interpreting, and forecasting environmental parameters and their changes qualitatively as well as quantitatively, resulting from the impact of external factors imposed on that particular environment. Encourage the public to lobby legislators/policy makers to enact legislation making Environmental Impact Assessments compulsory for all development.

Ethnic Minorities

Every city in the world is comprised of a variety of people who have different racial origins, religious beliefs and cultural heritages. Depending on the numbers of such people and their proportion in relation to other groups living there or those who were there before them, these people are classified as ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities usually represent communities of people who migrated from other places for different reasons. Although such minorities live as part of the community of a city, giving diversity and added richness, they can often, because of ignorance, bigotry or politically motivated reasons become victims of hatred and violence.

Experimental Community

Set up experimental community-based villages on the outskirts of the city to show how a link can be established with the city and how alternative energy sources can be used.

Expertise

Utilise the expertise of professionals and non-professionals in planning, organisation and implementation of activities or programmes and projects. Expertise both through academic education or/and through experience or informal education often provides different perspectives that can increase the effectiveness of the intended campaign, e.g. grassroots attitudes or specialist technology.

Evictions

Policies and regulations should be introduced to ensure that forced evictions are not carried out except in truly exceptional circumstances. Campaign for the government to establish an independent body legally responsible for preventing illegal forced evictions and monitoring, documenting and reviewing any ongoing or planned forced evictions. These committees can also be responsible for the up-dating and revamping of existing eviction procedures.

Eviction Assistance Fund

Such a fund should be set up by government or those involved in development where one-off grants or no-interest financial assistance is made available for those who are being evicted to temporary locations or require funds to set up their new homes. This fund should be separated from a compensation fund, thus preventing governments or developer from negating their responsibility to reach a proper solution or settlement for compensating eviction.

F

Family Unit

City life has always been based on the family unit. The family unit, while forming the basic economic unit, has provided sustenance, stability and comfort, and assumed responsibility for the old, the weak and the infirmed. Organise programmes which promote the importance of the family unit and support systems which facilitate its development. This can include family friendly employment procedures, office buildings, shopping and entertainment centres. Encourage developers to include crèches, short-term child care facilities and reading rooms.

Flood Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

Planning of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Flood damaged areas should be done for both areas prone to flooding and highly inhabited areas. Cooperative arrangements between governments, relief agencies, NGOs and CBOs have proved to be very people friendly, effective and cost efficient, as in the case of Lebanon, Bangladesh and Afghanistan.

Food Security

The availability of and access to adequate food supplies is essential to every community and individual. Food security ensures that supply is of acceptable quality and sufficient to cover the demand, whether it be locally produced or from external sources. Sustainable communities aim to achieve food security through promoting local production or guaranteeing outside supply.

Footpaths

Millions of people walk from one destination to another everyday. Walking is a good, non-polluting and healthy means of transportation in urban centres. Encourage the incorporation of footpaths into all development projects. Similarly promote the construction of proper footpaths to encourage the reduction of short-distance vehicle travel. Such footpaths should include trees and seating along the way to encourage walking as a pleasant viable means of transportation for all ages young and old.

Foreign Labour

Growing economies with shortages of local labour, coupled with increased access to cheap means of transportation are encouraging the migration of foreign labour to seek employment in second or third countries. Similarly wars and conflict equally force migration of people to safe havens/countries. This can increase the host country's requirement to provide more basic amenities and shelters.

Forest Based Enterprise

These are small-scale forest-based eco-friendly enterprises that support rural development and local entrepreneurship. Through the use of forest products such as medicinal plants, dyes, fibers, gums, resins, fodder, and bamboo the process of selective and sustainable forest management can be implemented. At the same time there is a promotion of the work and tradition of local artisans and an additional way of generating income.

G

Gangsters

Gangsters are frequently used in illegal evictions to frighten and beat-up squatters. This practice is usually used by developers to force the squatters out and avoid negotiations. The police often work in collaboration with the gangsters.

Gazette

Campaign at local and national level and towards civil servants to gazette and publicise all infra-structural and project developments to be gazetted in the main stream media. The current practices leave most people unaware of the proposed plans and their alternations. With more knowledge of future plans citizens will be able to provide input and opinions of intended development.

Gender Sensitisation

Gender issues are often ignored in policy making and planning procedures. In order to ensure that such discriminatory practices are eliminated, the organisation of awareness programmes and training which promotes gender sensitisation should be conducted particularly for policy makers, government agencies, urban planners religious authorities, the judiciary, police and institutions that hamper women's status.

Green Charcoal

Green charcoal is a solid briquette fuel made from biomass. The product is formed of agro-waste, cellulosic garbage and biodegradable matter and through an enzymatic charring process turns treated biomatter into clean, useable, high-energy fuel. Not only does green charcoal promote the use and reuse of waste materials, it makes a good substitute for firewood and charcoal used both in the household and for commercial purposes.

Green-lung

Green lungs provide essential environmental, physical and psychological support in any urban centre. Promote the protection of green lung areas and recreational parks in cities and the understanding of their importance. Organise campaigns to promote greening of urban areas through tree planting, designating and gazetting of areas as green belts, and conserving green areas and public spaces.

Government Land

With land becoming a scarce resource in most urban areas and with the increased practice of land price speculation, campaign for the prohibition of the sale of government-owned urban lands, foreclosed or sequestered lands and lands of public domain to domestic and foreign investors. Encourage the government to utilise the land for publicly beneficial projects, such as low-cost housing, parks and green belt areas.

Health Plan

Having a health plan is a good way of systematically identifying needs, organising and developing, with time lines of action programmes. Promote the concept of local Municipalities adopting a comprehensive and effective Health Plan to improve living conditions such as water quality, solid waste management, proper public health facilities and social services.

Health Service

Provision of health services is an essential part of government responsibility. Health services to rural and urban communities are available through hospitals, clinics and primary health centres. In many countries, people take their own initiative to promote alternative health practices and informal health centres.

Heritage

Every city has areas, buildings and monuments which are considered historic landmarks and should be protected and conserved. Loss of such important buildings and the development of these areas marks not only physical loss but important historical, cultural and heritage loss. To protect these landmarks and buildings promote the enactment of heritage laws to regulate their use, alteration, demolition and preservation. Clarify tenure, compel registration and introduce loans and preservation funds for restorations, improvements and up-keep of these landmarks and buildings.

Homelessness

Homelessness is a growing problem in most urban centres. With the price of housing constantly increasing and with more and more people migrating to urban centres in search of employment and the high price of housing many who can't afford to pay are left without any housing. In both developed and developing nations, these problems are becoming acute resulting in many sleeping on sidewalks or being forced into squatting. Halfway houses and shelter can provide temporary housing for homeless people, but the long-term solutions lie in job security and the availability of affordable housing. Municipalities should be lobbied to provide such facilities, whilst the private sector should contribute towards the development of such facilities as a social and ethical responsibility.

House Building

The process of house-building is often based on convenience and profit margins to the developer. The utilisation of innovative housing technologies and building materials and the allocation of funds for incentives to individuals/organisations which develop new and/or improved housing technologies could greatly enhance its usability and efficiency.

Housing Co-operatives

The establishment of housing cooperatives will enable the development of housing which utilises skills of those involved in the co-operative. It also lowers the cost of production as the co-operative does not pursue development for profit. Housing co-operatives can also be a community focal point and a training centre for construction and management skills.

Human Rights

The right to housing is a fundamental premise of people-centred development. Citizens of all states have the right to expect governmental concerns for their shelter needs and the fundamental obligation to protect and improve their neighbourhoods.

I

Idle land

Most cities have large areas of idle lands belonging to the government. To ensure that there is an adequate supply of affordable land for residential development, promote the formulation of guidelines and directives to transfer idle government lands to be used for low and medium cost housing and the development of social amenities.

Income Generation

The ability to generate income is an important feature in poverty alleviation. It is also important in creating self-reliance and confidence. The lack of opportunities, economic planning and skills often hamper the ability of a community or individual to generate income. People centred programmes provide some of the best options for equitable, non-exploitative income generation.

Increasing Women's Participation

Women make up more than 50% of the worlds population and the population of most countries. However the levels of women's actual participation at all levels of decision making, planning, research are very minimal. Patriarchal systems, discrimination and lack of support provision hinder women from their rightful participation. Organise campaigns led by women to encourage the increased participation of women at all levels in project and programme research, design, planning and implementation to facilitate women user friendly products and developments.

Inner City

Encourage the revival and re-development of derelict inner city areas involving the local inhabitants. Besides the historical and social importance of such areas, the land space and buildings provide a good resource which when redeveloped or revived can both alleviate social and economic problems faced in the respective area. Communities in partnership with local government, NGOs or the private sector can initiate projects to redevelop derelict areas. Economic spin-offs include job creation, skill training and enhancement and income generation; Social spin-offs include crime reduction, poverty reduction, and improved health, education and safety conditions.

Instruments For Regulation

The are different types of regulatory instruments designed for land use control which can assist to protect sensitive land resources, public interests, and environmental and cultural values. Examples of such instruments include zoning, subdivision regulations, and transfers of development rights.

Integrated Urban Management

Most urban areas are currently sectorially managed by governments. This leads to inefficiency and costly duplication of services. Lobby government: to adopt integrated urban management, to support the development of specialist research and training institutions to train personnel, and to identify specific mechanisms to overcome the constraints created by sectoral approaches, in particular, by separate management of road development, public transport, land-use, and water.

Intelligent Cities

Many planners are now looking towards the development of people friendly, intelligent cities that feature the use of high technological, energy-saving devices and designs, state of the art communication systems and effective transportation networks. Intelligent cities could be the answer to the increased efficient utilisation of resources and overall friendliness of a city.

Job-sharing

Job-sharing provides flexibility for employees who have other commitments. The system has been particularly useful to those who care for a family or wish to only work part-time but for a job which requires full-time commitment. It requires team work and organisation to prevent duplication or confusion. Job-sharing has enabled many women, in particular, to return to employment.

J

Joint-Ventures

Encourage joint-ventures between investors, community based organisations, housing co-operatives and housing developers to promote low-cost housing and increased employment opportunities for the residents and inhabitors.

Justice

Social and gender justice are essential in order for any community to develop equitably. Communities should achieve social and gender justice by ensuring that there is no economic marginalisation. By narrowing the gap between the formal and informal economy through the repeal of discriminatory laws, the provision of loans, affirmative action programmes and training, job security, self-reliance, consciousness and empowerment can be achieved.

K

Kindergarten

Nursery and pre-school education plays an essential part of in the overall development of a child. Many communities that do not have access to government or non-profit kindergartens have established community kindergartens as an alternative. Such community-based kindergartens provide education for the children and employment and training for members of the community. It can also be an important focus point for developing community solidarity.

L

Labour

One of the main functions of a city is to assemble the labour supply in an easily accessible, central place where it can be employed productively. As a city is dependent on the availability of labour for its growth it is therefore of particular relevance that the requirements of the labour force are taken into account at every level of planning.

Land conversion

Indiscriminate land conversion has been one of the main factors for the displacement of many people in rural and urban centres. It has also led to loss of livelihood and the forced migration of communities who have settled in converted areas. This problem has been particularly harsh on those who have been in agricultural and fisheries sectors, where lands and coastlines have been converted for industrial and tourism use.

Land-sharing

A system of equitable land use whereby squatters, landowners or developers agree that a proportion of the land to be developed is allocated to the squatters to move to and continue living while leaving the rest of the land to be developed.

Land-speculation

Land speculation is a common practice where land is bought primarily for its potential income earning capacity. The ownership of such land is usually for a relatively short period of time and therefore prevents any long-term security of tenure.

Lifestyle

Individual lifestyles vary. However, promoting awareness of the limited resources available and the need to reduce personal consumption can greatly increase the sustainability of society and the planet. Promote awareness in society of the need for sustainable lifestyles. Work in particular, with local educational departments and national educational planners to promote to school children and college students sustainable lifestyles and environmentally and socially friendly practices.

L

Low-cost housing

With the limitations in government human resources and the lack of commitment of the private sector housing contractors to develop low cost housing, the use of local housing co-operatives to develop such provides a good alternative. Besides building the houses, co-operative housing projects develop people skills and generate income for those involved in the localised project.

Low-Income Financing

The lack of financing for low-cost housing projects often make these much needed projects unfeasable. Lobby government to establish appropriate financial institutions to ensure availability of finance for the development of human settlements and implementing community based housing-finance systems for the benefit of low-income groups.

M

Media

The media plays a big role in both information dissemination and value formation. The role of the media can be significant if properly informed on the aims and objectives of Habitat II. Use the media to promote information to the public on activities and issues which can localise Habitat, such as the proposed national action plan, housing rights, environmental problems and social provisions.

Medium Rise Buildings (MRBs)

Medium rise buildings are four or five storey buildings that can house about 45 families. MRBs can be a solution for governments to the housing problem because they can accommodate more families on a piece of ground then other housing solutions.

Migration

Migration involves uprooting of individuals at various levels: rural-urban, inter-state within a country, or accross national boundaries. The duration of migration may be temporary or permanent, with consequences of social, cultural and psychological ill effects.

Minimum Wage

Exploitation of workers through the payment of wages which are below that accepted as a basic minimum is a social injustice which is common in urban centres. Besides being unethical and a breach of basic rights of a worker, it also adds to the problems of poverty. Many of those employed who are paid wages below that accepted as a basic minimum, are women and children and this adds to the daily discrimination and exploitation they face. Laws should be enacted to stipulate a basic wage for all and prosecution for non-compliance of such regulations.

Modified Transport Systems

Most transport systems are in accessible to disabled persons. Modify existing standards of public and private transportation in order to incorporate access for the disabled. Organise under the leadership of disabled groups "disabled access monitoring".

Mortgage Markets

The provision of mortgages and the control of mortgage rates vary from country to country depending on whether they are centrally controlled and the extent of their control. Often due to monopoly situations, the provision of mortgages are restricted and the interest rates at which mortgages are provided at are very high or allowed to fluctuate. This causes huge burdens to the consumer and promote inefficient and expensive services. Promote the decentralisation of lending operations and the increase competitiveness of mortgage markets to reduce artificially high consumer borrowing rates. However there should be careful regulation to prevent cartels being formed by those involved in mortgage provision, which in effect reverse market competitiveness.

Municipal Partnerships

Partnerships between municipal agencies and the community, whereby local people can participate in decision-making about municipal services and planning can increase efficiency and effectiveness. Resources can be committed to assist implementation of community tailored solutions to the cultural and social context of the community. The participation of community groups can be formalised by "community contracts" with the municipality which provide assistance and support in recognition of work undertaken to improve local environments and health conditions.

N

Native People

The terminology used in a positive manner to describe a person or groups of people who originally resided in a particular area/region/country. Often also referred to as indigenous persons, a major issue faced by such communities or individuals is forced assimilation into another culture, religion, tradition or lifestyle at the total loss of their own identity. For those groups of native persons who live in isolated areas they also face infringements of their land rights and find themselves forced into main stream society.

National Budget

Lobby local and national government to increase allocations of the national budget to upgrading slums, low-cost housing programmes, health and agricultural programmes aimed to benefit the poorer groups in society.

National Councils for Sustainable Development

National and local councils for sustainable development are organisations that can monitor and promote ethical, environmentally friendly and good business practices. Encourage the establishment of local and national councils for sustainable development, both in the formal business community and in the informal sector which include small-scale businesses to promote equitable and sustainable income generating practices.

Natural Resources

Natural resources are finite. Water, minerals, air, plants, trees are important but often misused resources. With rapid development these resources are being exploited, polluted and wasted with no consideration for longer term consequences. Increasing critical awareness of the need to conserve, protect and reduction of consumption is the only way to avoid complete exhaustion of the world's natural resources.

Neighbourhood

Neighbourhoods are parts of every city. They form an essential part of each community. Each neighbourhood can be made up of people from differing economic, cultural and racial backgrounds. Often acting as "melting pots" neighbourhoods can provide much needed brotherhood or sisterhood, social integration, stress relief and safety. However many neighbourhoods in today's urban centre have little or no spirit of co-operation or/and often lead to disorientation and lack of social cohesion. Neighbourhood programmes, common facilities, and social events can help build up friendship and positive neighbourly spirit.

Networking

A network is defined as an "arrangement with intersecting lines and interstices similar to a net". A network is interconnecting system of roads, communications, people, organisations, etc. Networking can be done at all levels, local to international. Networks provide the opportunities to share information, experiences, expertise and ideas usually on a non-profit, non-competitive basis. Networks used different mediums of communication and have loose structures.

New Information Technology

Societies that make the necessary investment in new information technology and infrastructure and enable and empower their citizens to make effective use of such technology can expect to fostersignificant productivity gains in industry, trade and commerce. This new information technology should be appropriately and optimally utilised to preserve and share cultural and moral values and enhance and improve education, training and public awareness of the social, economic and environmental issues affecting the quality of life.

Node

Establish an information, education and communication network on human settlement issues developed at a country level but affiliated with governments and NGOs. Link the centres together through a regional centre acting as a node.

Ocean

The oceans cover more than two-third of the planet's surface. A major source of food and resources the oceans also influence climate and the atmosphere. However the oceans are fast becoming contaminated and polluted as millions of tons of raw waste from urban centres, industrial plants, agriculture, tourism and sea transportation are being disposed in the ocean. At the same time over-fishing, coral destruction and coastline degradation is further killing the oceans. Campaign for the national and international regulation of waste disposal into the oceans and raise awareness of the importance of the sustainable exploitation of the oceans' resources.

O

Open

In order to increase efficiency, effectiveness and accessibility encourage the authorities to practise more "open door" style of administration and to consult the public on methods, policies and procedures utilised when creating new development projects or revamping existing projects to facilitate healthy consumer input and cross-sectional opinion and suggestions.

Orphans

There is a growing number of healthy and HIV-infected children who have been orphaned. The increase of AIDS Orphans is a relatively new human phenomenon which has to be addressed in all countries. Provision for support and care should be made by national governments, non-governmental agencies and public campaigns should be organised to increase awareness of this new social responsibility.

Overall Development Policy

Direct a government agency responsible to formulate an overall development policy grounded on sustainable and equitable development among regions and income classes. This policy which should include inputs from all sections of society, could be then used as a general framework in designing government policies and programmes in industrialisation, agricultural development, infrastructure development, etc.

P

Parking

The provision for parking is usually stipulated in planning regulation. The lack of adequate parking facilities often leads to indiscriminate on-street parking. The provision of high levels of parking however can be the root of increased traffic congestion as the availability of parking facilities directly influences car owners on whether to use his / her vehicle over the public transportation or even to use the vehicle at all. Night parking should be encouraged for commercial loading and off-loading of goods.

Partnerships

Partnerships between the public sector, the private sector and community groups can produce more holistic development. Organise forums which encourage partnerships and encourage the private sector to examine their role in the provision of shelter and urbanisation. Similarly call on the government to organise in cooperation with industry and the consumer movement, educational programmes which encourage sustainable methods of production and patterns of consumption.

Patterns of Consumption

Organise in co-operation with government, industry and the consumer movement, educational programmes which monitor and encourage sustainable methods of production and patterns of consumption. Use the mass media to highlight and promote sustainable consumption education amongst the public.

Plan of Action

A central part of the Habitat process is to ensure that each country formulates and adopts a national action plan to achieve the targets and goals of Habitat II. Based on local and national priorities these cumulated national plans of action form the core for the development of a global plan of action.

Polluter Pays

In most countries a large proportion of the industrial sector discharge the pollutants either into the air or the rivers and seas. Lobby government to enact legislation which apply the principle of "polluter pays" whilst introducing taxation or soft loan incentives to reduce pollution air and water.

Popular Education

Educating the public on issues which they do not immediately see as important can be made more difficult if the tools used to educate them are not user friendly. Use popular education tools like comics, and street theatre to convey information on urban issues problems and solutions.

Population Management

Population management is an important process in urban and rural management. With most developing countries facing rapidly growing populations the management of such growth is essential to securing better quality of life. Effective population management can be done through comprehensive education for adults and adolescents, provision of reproductive and nutritional health care and the encouragement of personal responsibility in both urban and rural areas.

Professional Associations

Involve Professional Associations in the training of governmental agencies and non-governmental organisations to facilitate contribution towards research, planning, organisation of community projects which work towards the goals of Habitat II. And increase co-operation with international professional organisations and support the establishment of professional associations in developing countries to enhance exchanges of personnel, information and technology.

Progressive Taxation

Institute progressive taxation of urban lands to prevent over commercialised speculation in particular which makes housing prohibitively expensive for the lower income groups and poor.

Q

Quality Control

Quality control of houses and buildings should be strictly regulated, monitored and enforced by an independent or quasi-governmental agency. The control and stipulation of quality of housing and buildings will ensure that the occupants are protected in both the short and long term from ill effects caused by inferior and hazadous materials, designs and structures.

Quota Systems

Quota systems agreed by the community as a whole can enable the equitable and sustainable sharing of an available resources like water, land and community produced food.

R

Recreational Facilities

Recreational facilities in housing areas are an essential part of improving the quality of life of the inhabitants. Lobby local and national authorities to fine or delay approval of housing projects which do not provide adequate free family and youth recreational facilities.

Reforestation

With the practices of logging and clear cutting causing so much damage to the environment, many countries have adopted reforestation programmes in areas which were once indigenous forests. Through government financial support and cooperation with local communities that have been directly affected by logging, successful reforestation programmes can be run using integrated planting of fuelwood and indigenous species.

Registration of Saving and Credit Schemes

The registration of saving and credit schemes will enable the scheme to gain legalised status and to protect both the scheme and the saver against irregularities. If a credit or saving scheme is legally recognised it then makes it easier to lobby government for financial support and contributions and tax exemption as such schemes are organised on a non-profit basis.

Relocation Costs

Relocation costs for those living in areas designated for development are rarely taken into account by the developer. Promote the concept of incorporating costs for relocation in the project costs of government infrastructure (national and local) projects which result in the displacement of families.

Rent Act

Rental regulations and legislation can provide an excellent tool to tenants to prevent arbitrary and artificial rental increases. Lobby Legislators both at local and national level to promote and support Rent Acts to control rental prices and to provide security to tenants. Rent Acts also usually provide for a mechanism and an agency to monitor rental rates in specified areas, and enforcing rental controls.

Report Cards

Community report cards are useful tool which can be used to monitor and evaluate the changing physical and social environment of a particular area. It is a people friendly way of getting members of the community involved in monitoring the places they live in and becoming more aware of issues which affect them.

Resettlement Regulation

The lack of regulation for equitable resettlement often leads to the exploitation of those who are to be resettled. Formulate comprehensive legislation on resettlement programmes which promote a policy of no demolition or eviction until all alternative logistical support, infrastructure, health and educational facilities are in place.

Ribbon Development

Ribbon development occurs at the edge of the city or along highways. Although highly profitable for developers, such development usually, if not planned, creates traffic congestion and problems for infrastructure provision. Ribbon development also lead to reduced access to the hinterland resulting in very inefficient use of land.

S

Sanitation

About 43 percent of the world population does not have access to sanitary waste disposal. Inadequate sanitation has a huge health impact and related economic costs. The lack of decent sanitation is a common problem faced at all levels - households, the community and the city. Generally resulting from poor planning and management, high pricing and inadequate hygiene education, campaigns should be aimed at introducing or intensifying hygiene education programmes and sanitation systems to be provided with a strategy of community-based, labour-intensive construction of sewerage and stabilisation ponds.

Secondary City Eco-Profiles

Secondary city eco-profiles discuss the existing environmental situation and the extent of land, air and water quality degradation; the underlying causes, linkages with economic development, and demographic growth; the existing institutional arrangements, on-going development efforts and projects, plans, programmes and strategies identified for the future by the government, provincial councils and local authorities; and the opportunities for sustainable development.

Siltation

Deforestation, mining, construction and certain careless agricultural practices result in increased siltation of rivers. Siltation in urban river beds and canals reduces their capacity to dilute pollution and often lead to flooding. Lobby for all development projects and activites, particularly those in areas prone to soil erosion and movement, to have Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and to be monitored and regulated. Similarly call for the establishment of a fund for desilting of rivers in which fines and contributions from developers can be accumulated.

Slum Community Network

Slum community networks are a fast growing development amongst organised slum communities. Such networks provide opportunities to share information and experiences, build awareness, promote joint-efforts and solidarity. Slum networks have also been used to conduct training and skills development. The networks are usually informal and locally based but are now advancing into inter-country and regional networks.

Slum Upgrading

Slum up-grading means providing basic services and land tenure security to slums and squatters. This is a cheaper option and argued by many health researchers as a better option then low-cost high-rise constructions. However sometime the up-grading costs too much for the families involved and they move out to be replaced by richer slum dwellers. The Zone Improvement Programme(ZIP) and Slum Improvement and Resettlement(SIR) in the Philippines, Indonesia and Pakistan funded by the World Bank are good examples of effective programmes.

Small Scale Enterprise

Support small-scale enterprises that in particular support sustainable rural development and local entrepreneurship. Besides being a source of income generation, the creation of employment and can reduce the levels of migration from rural areas to the urban centres.

Smoking in Public Places

Smoking is a health hazard which is often imposed on those who do not smoke. Organise campaigns to ban smoking in all public places and in venues commonly used by juveniles/youths.

Specialist Departments

Encourage the creation of specialist government departments for Housing and Urban Development which will undertake overall responsibility for developing the country's policy, programmes, monitoring and evaluation.

Street Children

There are over 30 million street children in the world today, mostly as a result of poverty and migration to cities. Street children are the lost generation of any future society as they have access to little or no protection or rights or self-improvement. Abused and exploited, many street children are lured into prostitution, sweatshops and other types of dangerous employment. Support facilities for these children are essential for protecting them and providing opportunities for them to improve their plight.

Sustainable Transport

The transportation sector is a major consumer of non-renewable energy and of land and is a major contributor to pollution, congestion and accidents. managing transport in human settlements should be done in a way that promotes good access for all to places of work, social interaction and leisure and facilitates important economic activities, including obtaining foof and other necessities of life. This should be done while reducing the negative effects of transport on the environment by developing sustainable transport policies.

T

Tax

Institute progressive taxation of urban lands. The introduction of such a land tax will reduce the vulnerability to commercial speculation of urban and urbanisable lands. One form of taxation that can be adopted is the land value tax which is a tax levied at progressively increasing rates on total land value in excess of a base value determined by government.

Technology

Encourage the use of appropriate and indigenous technologies. As most technology is transferred from countries (often the North) which have different environments and resource a user country (often the South), utilising technology which is low cost and locally created or adapted many increase effectiveness and cost efficiency.

Tenure Security

The lack of secure tenure, land registration systems and ineffective land titling is one of the biggest obstacles, particularly for the poor, to getting safe land for housing. The absence of titles also prevents access to loans and acts as an obstacle to encouraging improvements to the dwellings.

Toxic Waste

The majority of toxic waste is produced by industrial and chemical plants, although some household waste is toxic. The most common toxic substances found in industrial wastewater include mercury, cadmium, lead, zinc and tin. Such waste is increasingly being dumped into drains and canals which eventually flow into the rivers and water system with a high likelihood of contamination of the food chain and ground water.

Traditional Land Use

Traditional land use has usually developed over long periods of time taking into account effects on the environment and sustainability. Promote the active use of appropriate traditional and indigenous land-use practices, such as pastoralism, traditional land reserves and terraced agriculture in land management.

Traditional Medicines

An estimated three-quarters of prescription drugs derived from plants were discovered because of their prior use in indigenous medicine. Forest -dwelling indigenous people employ at least 1300 plant species for medicines and related purposes. Encourage the use of traditional knowledge in national health systems and promote the research into sustainable use of traditional plant species, whilst discouraging the patenting of medicines derived from such sources.

Training Centres

Skills development is an important factor in developing self-reliance and sufficiency. Promote the establishment of training centres in areas of unemployment in rural and urban centres, whilst making funds available for production loans to trained/skilled rural poor entrepreneurs.

Transport

Good public transportation systems are essential in any city. Most cities have been developed without adequate planning or provision for affordable public transport systems. Emphasis is too often placed on private vehicle ownership with little priority or support to public transport. Not only has this lead to serious problems of traffic congestion, it has also been one of the major causes of pollution in cities.

Trees

Trees are an important part of the ecological system. Besides being a source of renewable oxygen they provide shade, they cool the environment and provide energy in the form of fire wood. By-products from trees like gums, resins and medicines increase their importance to urban communities. The greening of urban centres by promoting tree planting both by the authorities and communities should be encouraged.

U

Unemployment

Establish training centres in areas of high unemployment in rural and urban centres. Funds should be made available from central funds but administered locally for start up loans for entrepreneurs and skills training for the unemployed.

Up-Grading Houses

Promote the up-grading of houses by individual households with support from community development association, local NGOs and municipal agencies, using local materials and labour-based and environmentally friendly technologies; training of municipal staff in health principles of housing.

Urban Corridors

Urban corridors are part of "the spatial shift" in the location of population and economic activity. Corridors develop as the result of the urbanisation of areas used to link one large metropolis, usually the capital, and other large cities. These corridors are often linked by rail and road transportation that enables the flow of goods and people within the corridor and play major roles in economic activity and population distribution in the country.

Urban Crime

Urban centres are often havens for crime. Poverty, unemployment, lack of any social and welfare provisions combined with corruption and mismanagement are some of the underlying factors which lead to high crime rates in cities. Lack of planning and bad structural design also adds to increased "insecurity". Reducing crime in urban centres requires a multi-leveled approach which deals with all issues simultaneously and involving all government parties, local authorities, enforcement and policing agencies, NGOs, and the members of the community.

Urban Malnutrition

Urban malnutrition is often the symptom of urban poverty. The urban poor usually are cut off from the opportunity to cultivate food due to the lack of access to land and the lack of income to purchase expansive food products sold in urban centres.

Urban Poverty

The constant increase of poverty in most developing countries remains a major problem and concern, particularly in the fast growing urban centres. Poverty alleviation programmes should be a central part of urban management programmes. By creating favourable environments for the informal sector to generate income, job-creation, making essential services more accessible, and providing improved welfare strategies the levels of poverty can be reduced while developing self-reliance and financial independence. Working with governments, multi-sectoral communities and non-governmental agencies can enhance the capacity of the administration to implement these strategies and programmes.

Urban Resource Centre

Promote the introduction of Urban Resource Centres (URCs)at local levels. Urban Resource Centres enable information sharing, training and networking. Usually run by a steering committee comprising of CBOs and NGOs involved in different fields of work, the variation helps to reduce duplication of work and also to effectively utilise the available expertise and resources. Urban Resource Centres in Pakistan and Sri Lanka are now a well known concept.

V

Vehicle emission

Vehicles are the biggest contributors to air pollution in urban areas. Campaign for the enactment of legislation which introduces heavy fines for smoke belching and emissions from all vehicles. Similarly call for the introduction of catalytic converters as a compulsory item for cars and lorries and the phasing out of two stroke motorbike engines.

Vision

A vision of the future of a city is central in developing any plan and action programme. It is important that our cities are acknowledged as our homes. Many countries have adopted visions for their long-term planing. Advocate a vision which is holistic and people centred. The AP 2000 proposes some criteria which are fundamental in vision development. They are: Social Justice; Ecological Sustainability; Political Participation; Economic Productivity; and Cultural Vibrancy.

W

Warranty

With the unscrupulous developers aiming to increase profit margins by using lower quality and non-specification materials when building houses, potential house owners now face the problem of major defects occurring in houses they buy. Organise with the community Housing Associations and lobby Legislators to introduce laws which increased warranty periods for houses and buildings constructed and materials used for the construction (e.g. material specification).

Waste Management

Urbanisation and consumerism have resulted in increased waste generation. Waste management is essential for public health and environment protection Solid waste contaminates groundwater and water bodies. Open dumping spreads disease and pestilence, while indiscriminate burning tributes to air pollution. Campaign for regular waste collection and safe disposal, educate the public to recycle and reduce dumping. Promote integrated waste management system.

Water

Water is essential to all life. Although taken for granted as a renewable resource, the wastage and pollution of water sources has led to increasing problems of contaminated water tables, crop failure, dessertification and drought. Huge amounts of water particularly in cities are wasted because taps are not turned off or due to leaks in the distribution system. Awareness building amongst individuals to change lifestyles to conserve water, regulating effluent discharge into rivers and maintenance of water distribution systems by the authorities will greatly reduce wastage. Similarly improving technology to increase water reuse in the industrial sector reduces the need to exploit new sources of water.

Waterways

Waterways are an effective means of transporting people and goods. Although waterways are still used, the frequency of use has dropped over time in favour of road-dependent transportation. The shift towards road transportation systems has led to many canals being filled in for road construction. The revival of waterways as an effective transportation system should be promoted in cities which have existing natural waterways or have coastal fronts.

Wetlands

Wetlands are a very important part of the ecological system. Multi-functional in nature, wetlands recharge ground water, control pollution, provide a habitat for wildlife fauna and flora, support the food chain, provide a flood buffer and prevent erosion of shorelines. Wetlands are however some of the most threatened environmental resources, especially due to the increased shoreline development for tourism and aquaculture (prawn and eel farming). Campaign for the protection of wetlands as national reserves. Increase awareness of the public of their importance to the whole ecosystem and to halting tourism and aquafarming projects in wetlands areas.

Women

Recognise the role played by women in urban and rural development. Ensure that there is active participation of women at all levels of consultation, planning, and implementation. Promote gender sensitisation for policy makers, government agencies, urban planners, religious authorities, the judiciary, police and institutions that hamper women's status to ensure better safety and protection.

Women-Centred Reproductive Health Services

The lack of specialised reproductive health facilities for women has led to many women, particularly the poor, being forced to use unsafe alternatives. Many communities are now trying to develop their own women health care centres but lack the financial and human resource support. Lobby government to provide women-centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health care and affordable accessible services for responsible family planning.

Workers Co-operatives

The establishment of workers cooperatives ensures that the workers are the owners of the business. Being people centred rather than capital centred, co-operatives aim to be more ethical, socially driven and environmentally considerate then the profit driven enterprise. A large proportion is community based and small. Workers Co-operatives can provide a source of localised employment, skill development and income generation.

Worship Centres

Centres of worship are an important feature in most communities. Besides enabling the practice of religious beliefs, such centres also can act as focal points for other community activities. Their availability should be encouraged in communities without discrimination or bias against any specific religion.

Young Professional

The Asian Coalition for Housing Rights runs training programmes for young professionals involved in Housing development. The programme aims to provide support and encouragement to young professionals and students to be involved in and more aware of urban poor issues. Course content includes familiarisation with root causes and potentials of urban poor communities. It also includes understanding the potentials of participatory research and planning for community based improvement plans.

Y

Youth

By the year 2000 the youth population will represent more than half of each city in the world. Developing youth programmes, workshops and encouraging dialogue will increase an understanding of the needs of this sector. This approach will also promote the involvement of youth in adopting an urban development strategy and increasing their own responsibility towards their own future.

Z

Zones

Introduce restricted zones which exclude private vehicles and car entry during peak times. Zoning can also be used to preclude private vehicles with single occupancy in city centres.

Zero-Waste Management

Zero-waste management encourages households, and commercial and industrial establishments to sort out their waste before it is handed over to the rubbish collectors. This system enables the easier and more efficient disposal of waste. A recent successful example of this type of waste management was successfully carried out in a community effort of over 60,000 villagers in the Villamor Airbase in the Philippines.

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